How long do tribal women breastfeed

He advised that infants should be given wine diluted with water to lessen the liability to convulsions [16]. On the other hand, Aristotle - BC considered breastfeeding a maternal duty and opposed to the use of wet nurses. He asserted that the quality of food exerted maximum effect in the organism and breast milk was the best food for the babies, as it was more familiar to them. Breast milk before the seventh month of pregnancy was useless.

He also referred to breastfeeding as a contraceptive method [17]. He says that the very natureattests that mothers should breastfeed their children. Therefore, nature endowed them with milk immediately after childbirth, and with a pair of mammary glands, in case of at win gestation. Praise was substantial for proper parenting. As an example, he cited thenurses who offered their breast for comfort every time the kids cried [19]. Xenophon - BC , an Athenian historian and philosopher, mentioned that God created he woman's body so that it can nourish the newborn and gave her more affection for babies than to the man [20].

Alternatively to breastfeeding from the mother, or to adoptive breastfeeding, ancient Greeks use to feed their children with a mixture of wine and honey in special pots [5]. According to the legend, a wolf nursed the twin brothers-founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, in order for them to survive, after their mother Rhea had put them in a basket and set it floating down the river Tiber, hoping that they would be found by someone [26].

Roumilia the goddess of breastfeeding and protector of all nursing mothers and infants, used to be worshiped in ancient Rome. At the height of the Roman Empire, between BC and AD, detailed written contracts with wet nurses were formed, to nourish abandoned babies. These infants were usually unwanted baby-girls thrown in the trash, bought by the rich and fed by nannies until the age of3 years. That was a cheap way of acquiring slaves [27]. Soranus of Ephesus 98 AD AD produced an obstetric and gynecological text of 23chapters, setting the criteria of a good wet nurse, the regimen for nurses, salting of the newborn and many other topics.

He was also the first to describe the nail test, used to assess the quality and consistency of breast milk: When a drop of breast milk was placed on a nail and the finger was moved, the milk should not be so watery to run across the surface of the nail.

When the finger was turned downwards, the milk should not be thick enough to adhere to the nail. The consistency of the milk should be in-between the two extremes. This criterion would be used for the next 1. He advised that mothers should avoid breastfeeding their infants for two days after labour, as he thought that the colostrum is of poor quality, thick and indigestible. He advocated that the mother's milk was more familiar to the child. However, the baby would be more robust, if fed by different women.

The hired nurse should be Greek, so the newborn would learn the best of all languages. The infant had to breast feed exclusively for the first six months, while gradual weaning was attempted the third or fourth semester of life [29]. Galen of Pergamum ADAD advised the wet nurses how to comfort infants with swaddling, rocking, and lullabies. His conception of the fundamental principles of the natural world or elements- air, fire, earth and water- which were respectively cold, hot, dry and moist, dominated medicine for many centuries.

A combination of one quality from each pair produced a complexion sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic and each had its appropriate humour Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile. Children were considered to be phlegmatic at first, becoming sanguine and choleric with growth, and they had to be treated accordingly [9].

According to Galen, the nature forecasted and made a liquid diet for the children, the mother's milk, which was a "remedy" to the baby. The "excellent" milk had a pleasant taste and odour, was white, homogeneous, and moderately thick [30].

The Roman physician Oribasius ADAD wrote that the wet nurse should incorporate chest and shoulder movements to enhance milk flow. The medical writings of Paulus Aegineta — BC comprised of seven books, the first of which elaborated with infant feeding.

In choosing a wet nurse, he recommended that, her age should between 25 and 35 years, with well-developed breasts and chest and had recently delivered a male child. She should avoid salty and spicy foods, venery and debauchery and she should exercise regularly her arms and shoulders, by grinding or working at a loom [9]. In Rome, the rich families employed Greek mothers and later Christians laves to breastfeed their children. The use of wet nurses was criticized by personalities such as Cicero - 43 BC and Tacitus 56 - after AD who believed that breastfeeding was the first family bond of love that would turn into love for the motherland.

There fusal of the mother to breast feed her children, was a sign of decadence and jeopardized the stability of society [18]. In ancient Palestine, since 2. Breastfeeding used to last long enough, almost up to two to three years and provided the infant with protection from various diseases, and above all from dysentery which was common and often fatal.

The moment of weaning was celebrated with a joyous meal originating from as a crifice; all that ritual was in commemoration of the great banquet that was given the day that Isaac, Abraham's son, had ceased to nurse Sarah. In BC Talmud, a central text of Rabbinic Judaism, recommended newborns to be placed immediately on the mother's breast and breastfeed for about two years [9]. The first Indian scriptures, the Vedas, represent the primary sacred texts BC , and stated that the milk and the breast are symbols of long evity and have the sweetness of nectarines.

The chest is designed as a pitcher full of nectar Atharva Veda. The ancient Ayurveda texts like CharakSamhita BC , the SushrutaSamhita BC , and KashyapSamhita, illustrated the importance of breastfeeding, and described the value of breast milk, considered to have vivifying power.

As to the duration of breastfeeding it is reported in these medical texts that it should last until the eruption of teeth, for at least six months.

The SushrutaSamhita clearly indicated the introduction of solid foods at the age of six months, when teething starts. Early weaning may result in swollen belly [31]. The SushrutaSamhita also recommended that breastfeeding continued until the mother became pregnant again [32]. Beliefs about the colostrum varied. Many mothers discarded colostrum, as they considered it to be harmful to the child and they gave babies cow's milk, water and honey during this initial and very important period for the establishment of lactation [33].

Chinese scriptures seemed to be closer to contemporary medical advice, approaching breastfeeding from a more natural and supportive perspective. Instructions for breastfeeding in Chinese medical texts dated from the 10 th century AD. Emphasis was put on the correct procedures and on the quality, temperature and freshness of the milk.

The restrictions placed on nursing mothers in nutrition, emotion, temperature and health were often repeated, and warnings against breast feeding immediately after sexual intercourse or while the mother was intoxicated were wide spread. Breastfeeding in China usually lasted at least two years [34]. Breastfeeding had a religious basis in Islam. The Holy Qur'an recommended, that if possible, the mother should breastfeed her offspring for two years, and declared that every new born infant had the right to breastfeed.

It described the need for continuity between intrauterine environment, in which food was transferred from the mother's blood through the placenta, and extra-uterine environment, in which the infantisfed with breast milk. So after birth the infant remained attached and dependent on its mother for food for 24months. If the mother was unable to breastfeed, she and the father could mutually agree to employ a wet nurse.

That demonstrated the preference of Islam in infant feeding with human milk instead of animal milk. The choice of wet nurse was considered to be the key to the health of babies that could not be fed by their biological mother. Children who were breastfed by the same woman were considered siblings and therefore were prohibited to marry each other [6].

The Hadith stated that the mother received a reward for every drop of breast milk given to her child. An important aspect of breastfeeding in Muslim culture is the emphasis on the mother's privacy when breastfeeding and this comes from the Islamic faith that there are body parts of men and women which should be covered at all times in front of those who are not close relatives [6,37].

In Byzantine times physicians described the art of breastfeeding an deemphasized its advantages, especially for low body weight newborns. Aetius 2nd century BC and Oribasius — BC , considered colostrum to be unsuitable for newborns, therefore, Byzantines fed newborns with honey during the first days of life. They believed that breastfeeding should ideally start between the 3rd and 5th day of life.

In Byzantium breastfeeding was associated with the socioeconomic status of the mother. Women of the aristocracy recruited one or more wet nurses to breastfeed their children [39]. Physicians did not reject the employment of wet nurses, but defined rigorous rules about nursing and set strict selection criteria. Traditionally, they preferred healthy women from Thrace or Egypt, aged between years, and if possible with age matching that of the mother.

Previous experience in parenting was essential. Their clothes should be clean, they should be calm and in happy mood and strict in morals [38].

This account could proceed straight to the Renaissance period, as there is no surviving work from the Middle Ages relevant to infant feeding; it is also unlikely that anything of importance was written. In Medieval West, women of the working class breastfed their children, as they could not afford to employ a wet nurse, but also because their domestic and agricultural work could be combined with breastfeeding. At the same time, the first objections against the use of wet nurses arose.

During the Middle Ages, society considered childhood as a special time of instability and vulnerability. Breast milk was believed to have magical properties, and it was thought that breast milk could transmit both physical and psychological characteristics of the woman. This belief led to objections against the use of nurses, and thus it was considered a holy duty of a mother to breastfeed her own child [8].

The year marks the beginning of the output of printed works on pediatrics; all the earlier ones where written in Latin, and nearly years were to pass before the first book in English on the subject appeared. Soc Sci Med [B.

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Download references. The research reported here is part of my doctoral thesis. I would like to thank the participants who made this study possible. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Mridula Bandyopadhyay. This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. Reprints and Permissions. Bandyopadhyay, M.

Impact of ritual pollution on lactation and breastfeeding practices in rural West Bengal, India. Int Breastfeed J 4, 2 Download citation.

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Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Breastfeeding in India is universal and prolonged. Results Belief in 'impurity and polluting effects of childbirth' necessitated seclusion and confinement of mothers after childbirth in the study villages. Conclusion Cultural and traditional practices have considerable implications on lactation and breastfeeding, and in the overall well-being and health of mothers and infants.

Background Breastfeeding is universal in India [ 1 — 3 ] and several cultural practices are associated with lactation and breastfeeding. Breastfeeding in India It is now well established that breastfeeding is universal in India — both in urban and rural areas — and continues into early childhood years; and plays an important role in the context of child health [ 10 — 12 ].

Breastfeeding initiation Initiation of breastfeeding after birth is considerably delayed in India, and in most cases the valuable colostrum is discarded before putting the child to the breast [ 2 , 13 ]. Concept of ritual pollution The concept of ritual pollution is a powerful and enduring social control mechanism in Indian society; concepts of purity, pollution, and defilement are a reflection of cultural attitudes to the body and the organisation of these attitudes into a status hierarchy [ 18 ].

Methods The general aim of the study was to examine the socioeconomic and cultural factors influencing maternal and child health care practices in rural West Bengal. Survey questionnaire The questionnaire was pre-tested in a district of West Bengal amongst a small sample of ten women between the ages of 15—45 years to test the efficiency and consistency of the questions, and was amended after piloting.

Data collection One hundred households were randomly selected from each village. For the purposes of the present study exclusive breastfeeding and supplementary feeding are defined as: Exclusive breastfeeding: women who only breastfed their infant until six months including prelacteal feed, because of universality of prelacteal feed Supplementary feed: any feed introduced between one-to-six months besides breast milk.

Study villages Detailed description of the study villages are reported elsewhere [ 25 ]. Results Isolation of mother and child after childbirth The main reason for immediately isolating the mother and the newborn from the rest of the household after childbirth is because of the 'impurity and polluting effects of childbirth', which is believed to be dirty, defiling and contaminating.

Food avoidance during lactation and breastfeeding One thing that was common across the study population was the observance of strict food taboos after childbirth. In the study villages, women strictly followed the cultural taboos related to food avoidance and restriction: "After delivery for the first three days I was on a diet of dry food, such as rice crisps, garlic, and ghee clarified butter , and was allowed to eat only once a day, as this diet helps to contract the uterus quickly.

Initiation of breastfeeding "The first feed my son received was hot water a few hours after birth. Table 1 How long after birth infant was put to breast Full size table. Table 2 Duration of breastfeeding the last child Full size table.

Table 3 Supplementary food given besides breast milk within the first six months Full size table. Discussion Women act upon their household's and traditional beliefs regarding both physical and metaphysical changes that occur during pregnancy and delivery, and believe in ritual pollution and vulnerability during pregnancy and after childbirth [ 9 ] thus necessitating seclusion and confinement after childbirth. Conclusion Undoubtedly breastfeeding is invaluable in the developing world, particularly amongst the lower socioeconomic and disadvantaged groups.

References 1. Google Scholar 2. Google Scholar 4. Article PubMed Google Scholar 5. CAS Google Scholar Google Scholar Article PubMed Google Scholar Article Google Scholar Google Scholar Download references. Acknowledgements The research reported here is part of my doctoral thesis. Additional information Competing interests The author declares that they have no competing interests. Electronic supplementary material. Additional file 1: Thumbnail sketches of the study villages. DOC 32 KB.

About this article Cite this article Bandyopadhyay, M. Native families face serious health challenges, including the highest rates of obesity and diabetes which often lead to other health problems for mother and baby. Breastfeeding provides the best nutrition for baby.

As Indigenous women, it is imperative we share this knowledge with families and other agencies supporting home-visiting. These collaborations across diverse communities allow us to build and share the resiliency held within our communities.

Breastmilk should be the main food during the first year of life and continued breastfeeding through two 2 years old or longer as desired by mother and baby.